The industrial relations system

Malaysian industrial relations (IR) have been characterized by extensive state control, guaranteeing a high level of managerial prerogatives within the workplace, minimal overt conflict and with labor having weak bargaining power (Arudsothy and Littler, 1993; Jomo and Todd, 1994; Ariffin, 1997, quoted in Todd and Peetz, 2001: 1365). In Malaysia, approximately 13 percent of the labor force in 1980 was unionized, in many cases by unions of dubious efficacy (see Table 10.2 for details of union membership).