ABSTRACT
This chapter explains the democratic engagement for two groups at the heart of the socio-cultural cleavage common in European democracies. It presents overall results for all European countries of the European Social Survey 2012, including individual level and country-level-variables. Ethno-discriminated and xenophobes can be seen as extremes, and form, in principle, minorities in opposition to each other. The chapter deals with two complimentary expressions of political participation, broadly understood: attitudes toward key democratic institutions on one hand, and behavior that is explicitly political, on the other. Marginalization theory and group conflict theory are complimentary when used to explain political attitudes and behaviors of the self-assessed ethno-discriminated and of individuals with xenophobic views. Marginalization theory, also called social exclusion theory, draws attention to the disadvantages of being excluded from shared opportunities that are enjoyed by others. The marginalization approach also applies to xenophobes, who, according to public opinion polls and survey data, are themselves a minority group.
