ABSTRACT
Epidemiological Differences ........................................................................... 112 Diagnostic Differences ................................................................................ 112 Levels and Types of Symptoms .................................................................. 113
Pubertal Changes: Triggers for Risk Factors .................................................. 114 Reproductive Hormones and Morphological Change ............................... 114 Psychosocial Aspects of Pubertal Changes ............................................... 115
Risk Factors ...................................................................................................... 116 Biological Risk Factors ................................................................................ 116
HPA Axis ................................................................................................. 117 Genetic Factors ........................................................................................ 118 Neurotransmitter Dysregulation ............................................................ 119
Psychosocial Factors ................................................................................... 120 Negative Cognitive Style ......................................................................... 120 Interpersonal Orientation and Social Support ...................................... 121 Negative Life Events ................................................................................ 122
Poor Emotion-Regulation Skills: Further Exacerbation of Depressive Symptoms ................................................................................................. 124
Summary .......................................................................................................... 126 References ........................................................................................................ 127
During adolescence, there is a remarkable shift in the relative risk of depression in girls and boys. Prior to about the age of 13, girls and boys have fairly equal levels of depressive symptoms and rates of depressive disorders. Between ages 13 and 15, girls’ rates of symptoms and disorders rise precipitously, while boys’ rates remain relatively stable (Galambos, Leadbeater, & Barker, 2004; Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002). By early adulthood, women are twice as likely as men to suffer depression. Several biological and psychosocial factors have been identifi ed that may help to explain this gender difference.
