ABSTRACT
Virtually all of the versions of and strategies for effective schools that are contained in this volume were initiated independently to address particular challenges and situations. What is remarkable is the agreement among the strategies. We conclude this chapter by summarizing these areas of accord as a basis for considering generic approaches to developing schools that will be more effective.
Central philosophy. The most effective schools are characterized by a central philosophy that provides a guiding spirit to the design and implementation of results. The reforms seem to be inspired by a serious and persistent set of educational concerns towards which a profound transformation of schools seems to be the only solution. The philosophy of each effective schools movement is cohesive, overarching and holistic rather than being a collection of piecemeal and incremental changes. This philosophy is embodied in a movement which has a spiritual and reformist appeal as opposed to the more traditional technocratic and mechanical approach to school improvement. This means that an effective schools movement must go beyond a mere checklist to an organic approach that encompasses these features in a natural way rather than mere ‘add-ons’ to existing schools.
Overall strategy. The overall strategy is to use the central philosophy to design an ideal school and school program. This ideal is used as a basis for a com-prehensively conceived curriculum, training program, materials, administration support, and uniform approach to school change at a macro-level. At the same time, local flexibility, adaptations, and variations are encouraged to meet local needs within the overall program boundaries.
Community involvement. Community involvement is central to the ideal of the effective school in two ways. First, the community is expected to contribute local resources to the school through the provision of in-kind contributions and voluntary participation in school activities. In addition, families have particular responsibilities to support and reinforce the education of their children. Second, the school is expected to contribute resources to the community by addressing community needs in its programs and getting students to work on community problems and projects. The community is expected to be an asset to the school and vice versa.
Empowerment. A principal emphasis is placed on empowering teachers, students, parents, and the community to take responsibility for making educational 16decisions and for the consequences of those decisions. At the heart of the educational philosophy is the view that a meaningful education requires active participation among all who are involved in the process rather than following a script or formula set out by higher levels. Schools are expected to choreograph their own activities within the framework of the larger effective schools program.
Active learning. The emphasis on student learning is to shift from a more traditional passive approach in which all knowledge is imparted from teachers and textbooks to an active approach in which the student is responsible for learning. Effective schools approaches emphasize self instruction, the use of manipulative and objects around which activities are built, problem solving, and meaningful applications. Active learning also means the application of learning activities to the local context.
Focus. Effective schools tend to delineate the scope of their programs, often focussing on accomplishing well a narrow set of objectives rather than addressing ineffectively a much larger set of goals. The Coalition for Effective Schools in the US stresses that ‘less is more’. This view is also found in accelerated schools where acceleration often means to cover fewer topics and activities in depth rather than more topics in rapid profusion. The Escuela Nueva is clear about its four curriculum areas. Each of the programs seems to emphasize a clear and manage-able focus rather than a proliferation of goals.
Teacher expectations. Either explicitly or implicitly, each of the approaches is premised on high teacher expectations. The view is that students can succeed if the right conditions and support are provided to ensure their success. This view is embodied in the central philosophies of the programs as well as in the training and curriculum.
Funding and resources. In most developing countries, where the school resources are below the threshold to sustain regular schooling programs, additional resources must be found. These can come from the community and parental efforts as well as from national budgets. Effective school reforms must partially address this problem by freeing up resources that can be reallocated to meet more pressing needs. For example, one major multi-country project, Impact, was premised on raising student to teacher ratios by increasing self-instruction, low-cost educational technologies, and community participation (Cummings, 1986). Another major source of additional resources comes from reducing high rates of retention (Harbison and Hanushek, 1992). Clearly, if students do not have to repeat grades, those resources can be used to expand enrollments and improve educational quality. But the shortage of resources must be addressed systematically to make schools more effective.
