ABSTRACT
As stated in Chapter 1, we do not need to dwell on the point that student achievement in America, generally, is not where it needs to be (NCES, 2009a, 2010a). Gains in student performance have been moderate and the achievement of American students in mathematics and science falls behind almost all other democratic countries in the world (www.pisa.oecd.org). These generally unimpressive student performance levels make the even lower levels of achievement in the nation’s large, urban-as well as many isolated rural districts-even more problematic (NCES, 2009a; https://nationsreportcard.gov/tuda.asp). Further, the United States is plagued with consistent and high “achievement gaps,” i.e., differences in achievement between its majority, Caucasian students and its many minority groups, particularly children from African American and Hispanic backgrounds (Planty et al., 2008; Vanneman, Hamilton, & Anderson, 2009). Indeed, many advocates for education reform from all levels and segments of our society continue to press for higher levels of student performance, and reducing the achievement gap between majority students and students of color and from lower-income backgrounds. The degree of improvement needed is substantial.
