ABSTRACT

Children’s participation in highly organized adult-directed competitive sports has become an integral part of American culture. The continuous rise in participation rates affirms the belief that youth sports are inherently beneficial (National Center for Education Statistics, 1988). Involvement in sports is seen as enhancing citizenship as well as moral, personality, and character development. However, paralleling this early introduction to organized sports is the departure of many neophyte athletes long before their fitness and sports skills are developed. The high attrition of young athletes appears to be a direct consequence of the negative experiences these children have had with competition (Brubaker, 2007; Doering, 2008; Todd & Kent, 2003; Wankel & Sefton, 1989). Apparently, the potential positive benefits of sports can be reversed by an excessive emphasis on winning, controlling coaches’ styles, and lack of fun (Stephens & Schaben, 2002; Weiss & Chaumeton, 1992).