ABSTRACT
In this chapter we examined the method of two-dimensional inverse dynamics. The equations for planar force and moment calculations from inverse dynamics, for single segments or for a segment chain, were explained, along with how the procedures can be extended to multiple-segment systems. We also highlighted the difficulties of calculating the forces in muscles and ligaments arising from the indeterminacy problem, including typical simplifications made in inverse dynamics modelling. The various approaches to overcoming the indeterminacy (or redundancy) problem were described.
We covered the method of inverse optimisation, and attempted to evaluate some of the various cost functions used in research. The uses and limitations of EMG in estimating muscle force were outlined.
