Conclusion

It should seem odd to devote an entire volume to something that does not exist-or that can be found at best in very limited or ephemeral forms: democracy in the Middle East. Even exploring the reasons for its weakness in the Middle East would first appear to be an odd way of phrasing the question: why is it that democracy’s absence needs to be explained? While democracy has come to have positive normative connotations in a vast array of societies, we cannot ignore its historical rarity as a political form. To inquire into the lack of democracy risks confusing the exception for the rule. Regional political realities make it hard to avoid cynicism when discussing the topic. And the press of recent events in the region seems to vindicate such cynicism. But the interest in the subject remains strong. Many, including those who

were asked by the editors to contribute to this volume, continue to analyze, write, speak, and organize on the subject. The terrain is unpromising to be sure, but we are not alone in exploring it. The promised rewards of democracy in the region are so great that it is difficult to avoid exploring democratic possibilities. And indeed, that is the primary reason for this volume and the motivating force behind many of the contributions. It is not simply the difficulty of the task or the possible rewards that fascinate us (although they do); it is also the degree to which the non-existent (or at best embryonic) democratic institutions and practices have drawn the attention and the energies of so many able people and powerful forces. It is precisely because so many activists and intellectuals in the region-and so many Western policy makershave focused on democratic possibilities in the region that we are moved to examine it. The contributors to this volume examine the topic from a wide variety of

angles. And while they hardly speak in a single voice-given the diversity in their perspectives, professions, places of origin, and focus, that would be impossible and maybe even undesirable-their essays do allow us to give some coherent answers to a series of questions concerning democracy in the region. In this section, we try to answer four of the most pressing questions that external actors and regional activists have been asking in recent years. First, is the Middle East becoming more democratic? Second, why is democratic change so difficult in the region? Third, can outside powers push the

Middle East toward greater democracy? Finally, is religion a democratizing force or an inhibiting one?