ABSTRACT
The literature employs the term “globalization” to describe the growing cross-national connectivity and interdependence experienced since the 1960s. However, scholars debate the exact meaning and critical features of this interconnectedness. Modelski (2007, Chapter 2 of this volume), for example, emphasizes the role of institutions, including markets, states, alliances, international governmental organizations (IGO), and learning networks. The A. T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Index (Foreign Policy, 2003) focuses on political engagements (e.g. memberships in IGO), contacts (e.g. travel, phone), and economic activities (e.g. trade, investments). Kudrle (2004) employs this index, but notes that it omits environmental and military aspects. Andersen and Herbertsson (2005), Bhadari and Heshmati (2005), and Heshmati (2006) focus on economic aspects. Held et al. (2007) cast the widest net, focusing on the political-legal (e.g. treaties), military (e.g. armies), economic (e.g. trade), social (e.g. migration), and environmental (pollution, natural resources) aspects of interconnectedness, as well as the extent of international income and wealth inequality and exclusion from the processes of globalization.1 Taking all these conceptualizations at face value, it seems that globalization implies a process of growing cross-border connectivity and interdependence within all the key domains of human activity.
