Introduction

There was much discussion during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries about the fundamental differences between humans and nonhumans. Although the influential French scientist, Buffon, claimed to have scorn for this idea, the investigation of animal behavior was seen by many as a branch of natural theology. The remarkable fit between a species' needs and its abilities was seen as evidence of the perfection of God's creation. Richard Levins and Richard Lewontin have argued that contemporary adaptationist views are related to these older theological doctrines. In association with Stephen Jay Gould they have claimed that biologists often see teleology where there is randomness, and order where there is drift. These themes are taken up by John Byers and Marc Bekoff, Randy Thornhill, and Sandra Mitchell. Mitchell is not sympathetic to the adaptationist program, especially when it is applied to animals that have the capacity for cultural learning.