ABSTRACT
Rights and freedoms for the individual are embodied in Chinese humanism, and there are limitations on the power and authority of China’s rulers under the Mandate of Heaven. The Mandate of Heaven, which is an essential tenet of Confucianism traceable to the Duke of Chou and developed by Mencius, is a concept akin to the Western notion of natural law. It is equally clear that the concept of human rights in traditional China included political freedoms—meaning individual freedoms and protection from unrestrained rulers—and economic rights, which were identified with the material welfare of the people. Chinese Communist leaders have taken a clearly hostile, or at least suspicious, stance when human rights concerns became a tenet of another nation’s foreign policy. People’s republic of China leaders feign outrage and reply with insult when confronted by criticisms of human rights abuses in China.
