ABSTRACT
Several basic, interconnected transformations have taken place in childhood worldwide beginning in the West in the late 18th century: the replacement of child labor with schooling as children’s primary responsibility, transforming children from economic assets to financial liabilities; reductions in birth and infant and child mortality rates, which meant that fewer parents experienced the loss of a child; and direct involvement of the state in children’s lives, resulting in debates over the limits of parental rights. Nevertheless, sharp differences in cultural values persisted, involving such issues as how rapidly children should grow up, what responsibilities children owned their families, and how much value should be attached to children’s happiness. If modernization has encouraged heightened concern about children’s safety, health, and psychological well-being, the impact on children and the impact of social and cultural changes have not been unambiguously positive.
