ABSTRACT
This chapter provides the profession with cutting-edge research, applied research, and practitioner uses and topics for Geospatial Information Systems (GIS). The traditional fields of geography, geology, computer science, engineering, agriculture, education, and yes, even the social sciences, as well as other fields of study, have traditionally been siloed from one another. There are few tools, mechanisms, methodologies, or research that could have unified so many fields to create much of the interdisciplinary research activities seen in times as Geographic Information Systems, better known as GIS. As with any new tool or system, GIS has evolved considerably over time. In 1968, when Roger Tomlinson was initially writing about GIS, technology in the form of computers were bulky and limited by what computers could accomplish. In terms of capability, mainframes in use in 1968 used punch cards to input data and programming into the system, which was required for an output.
