ABSTRACT
In the years after World War II, the Japanese mass media transformed from a collective mouthpiece for a militarist government into a free, raucous, and competitive modern industry. Yet, throughout the subsequent Heisei era, the state, the political class, and other powerful actors retained their ability to wield influence over the media in ways that cast doubt on Japan's postwar claims to full democracy and freedom of expression. In the final decade of the era, the media came under particular strain both from shifting consumption patterns and from a government that used a range of methods to push a conservative narrative and intimidate and sideline critical outlets.
