ABSTRACT
During the late nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century, Western colonialism and Thai overlordship were the primary political features of the Muslim areas of Southeast Asia. All colonial and overlord nations – The Netherlands, Great Britain, the United States, and Thailand – attempted to change the economic, social, and cultural institutions of the indigenous peoples. They used extractive mineral projects and plantation agriculture for economic gain at the expense of the local economic actors. Education was limited to the indigenous elites and discouraged among the general population. As well, local elites were divided with some cooperating with the colonial authorities and others leading opposition movements, including boycotts and insurrections. All colonial powers believed Islam was in a state of decay but they were benign in allowing visible signs of Islam such as fasting during Ramadan, mosque building, and other Muslim festivities. Muslims themselves were divided with some wanting stress placed on traditional teachings and others urging significant changes in worship and practice. The efforts of both groups upgraded Islamic identification and piety. Nationalist movements developed only on Java and in West Sumatra, albeit with non-Muslim leadership, although Muslim populations wanted self-rule universally throughout the region.
