ABSTRACT
Nonhuman mammalian mothering is hormone-dependent; hormonal changes occurring during pregnancy and labor causally determine the expression of maternal behavior. Hormonal changes during pregnancy, birth, and the postpartum period prime and accompany the expression of parenting, sculpting the development of the parent-child attachment and its long-term effects on the infant’s brain and behavior. This chapter presents a discussion on studies on oxytocin (OT) and cortisol (CT) in high-risk populations, focusing mainly on two systems—OT and the affiliative system and CT and indices of the stress response. It describes each hormonal system separately and addresses findings related to mothering and fathering for each hormone. OT, vasopressin, and prolactin appear to ignite the expression of parenting behavior, CT, salivary alpha amylase, and immune biomarkers to manage the stress involve in parenting, and testosterone plays a special role in development of fathering.
