Introduction

Over the last 150 years, the marine environment has been the scene of an extraordinary expansion of activity. Global acknowledgment of the depletion of resources and the concept of ‘peak oil’ however quickly came into play. As a result, the development of the exploitation of seabed resources has been subject to important forces of change. General worries associated with the improper use of science and technology against peoples and the environment during the Vietnam War, as well as the escalation of tensions during the Cold War, urged States to rethink the nexus between humans and nature. Economic pressures related to the access and use of minerals and metals have also continuously been driving the international agenda, especially when it comes to seabed mining. These pressures have however changed faces throughout time. In terms of risk evaluation, the main existing gaps actually concern what is often referred to as ‘the social and environmental license to operate’.