ABSTRACT
Cities began to regain their capacity for action as the nineteenth century progressed. Industrialism and the efficacy of smaller-scale production sites meant that the primacy of port cities, so important in an economy of sea transportation and trading, began to lose its importance. Rising sea levels, as a consequence of global warming, will make many islands and coastal cities unlivable. A map of any city will reveal that the metropolitan area may be composed of 50 to 100 smaller cities, not just neighborhoods but proper cities. These satellite cities provide housing, employment possibilities, cultural and retail opportunities, and transportation services. All cities sooner or later confront the challenges that come from natural events, such as weather and geological events; from the complexities of the existence of many communities in one urban area; and from ongoing issues related to size and urban complexity.
