ABSTRACT
In the early nineteenth century, early stirrings of "nationalism" within the Ottoman Empire, in response to European threats to its very existence, were framed in terms of Muslim identity. Over the last 150 years or so, Turkish realizations of "nationalism" versus "Muslim identity" and of "secularism" versus an "islamic society", respectively, have evolved not in isolation but in interaction with each other. Thus, the headscarf-wearing professor and students are seen as "betraying the faith", as threatening the very ideological wellsprings of Turkish culture and society. Both Turkish nationalism and Muslim identity may also include a kind of internationalism whose relevance and character vary from one person to the next. That is, in general, Turkish "nationalism" is most typically expressed in terms indicating a desire to be a part of the "modern", secular, European-dominated international system, whether economic, political, cultural, or social.
