ABSTRACT
The phrase made famous by the American Declaration of Independence, humanity’s right to “the pursuit of happiness,” first appears in a foundational text of the Enlightenment, John Locke’s Essay concerning Human Understanding (1689). It became permissible to seek happiness, not only in the future life affirmed by traditional Christianity but also (or instead) in earthly life. Happiness was variously conceived. “Public happiness” could be ensured by benevolent governments. Individual happiness was harder to attain or even to define: was it pleasure, joy, or just tranquillity? Did it require material prosperity? Could it be measured? And could the individual be happy without a positive relation to society? Did the advance of civilization increase happiness? Were primitive societies perhaps happier than civilized ones? Or might progress ensure true happiness in the future? On the cusp of the nineteenth century, such thinkers as Immanuel Kant and Mary Wollstonecraft changed the debate by arguing that moral duty and human dignity might be more important than happiness.
