ABSTRACT
For almost two decades, El Salvador ranked as one of the most violent countries in the world. El Salvador is, perhaps, the best-known theater for the application of anti-gang policies, commonly referred to as mano dura policies. Salvadorans are exposed to high levels of criminal violence, including theft, assault, drugs, weapons, human trafficking, sexual violence, political corruption, and money laundering. Multiple actors engage in violence in El Salvador, including organized crime, the state, and individuals. Gender-based violence, including inter-partner violence, is a significant and underreported problem. Nayib Bukele assumed the presidency in June 2019. Yet while Bukele's public facing policy was the “war on gangs,” there were substantiative allegations that Bukele had a shadow policy— negotiating with gangs. Mano dura policies in El Salvador also relied on an element of performance, including creating the “other,” dueling front facing and shadow policies, and a reliance on political spectacle.
