ABSTRACT
In the modern world of nation-states, citizenship defines who is and who is not a member in a society and who receives the rights and obligations associated with membership. Historically, the status of citizenship in the modern state was confined to men who participated in the deliberation and exercise of power. Over time, citizenship has expanded, both in scope (including civil, political, and social rights) and in membership (including populations such as nonproperty-owning men, women, and children) (Marshall 1964; Ramirez 1989). Today, citizenship extends across societies (Barbalet 1988) and even transcends the limits of national borders (Soysal 1994).
