ABSTRACT
One of the most striking historical characteristics of Europe has been its extreme political fragmentation. Across the centuries, numerous intellectuals and political leaders alike have dreamed of bringing order and unity to this mosaic, the latter most obviously through attempts at conquest. There was considerable intellectual agitation for unity in Europe in the 19th century, but almost exclusively by people who were, at best, on the fringes of politics. Their arguments and blueprints held little appeal or relevance for political leaders. However, the century did see a recognition that some form of economic cooperation – a customs union or free trade area – might hold some potential political advantages, but those schemes that did become operative were either short-lived or, like the Zollverein (customs union) established among German states in the first half of the 19th century, highly region-specific and protectionist.
