ABSTRACT
Several generalizations emerge from the study of Hindustani—North Indian—vocal genres. First, vocal music has been the most significant type of music in India from ancient times; only in the late twentieth century has instrumental performance risen to its present state of artistic development and popularity with classical-music audiences. Second, the development of instrumental music cannot be separated from that of vocal music. This cultural fact and value underscores eight further generalizations about Hindustani vocal music.
Vocal genres performed at the present time have a long history, beginning in the 1500s or earlier.
Over time, as local traditions have affected the more widely shared classical repertoires, new genres have emerged. Each successive new infusion, initially considered light music, has gradually become more classical, with the oldest vocal genre, dhrupad, becoming the epitome of classicism. Use of the terms classical and light classical to describe genres performed today reflects a continuation of that process (Prajnanananda 1981).
Only four classical and light classical genres—dhrupad, khyāl (also commonly transliterated as khayāl), ṭhumrī, and ghazal—have dominated the history of North Indian vocal performance. This discussion considers two other frequently performed genres, tarānā and dādrā. Concerts featuring any of these genres often include performance of other “light” vocal forms, such as the regional song genres ṭappā (from Banaras, based on a Punjabi folk song), Rabindrasaṅgīt (from Bengal), and pad (from Maharashtra).
Since the 1700s, these four main genres have coexisted rather than replacing each other in historical succession (Meer 1980; Wade 1987). Khyāl has been the preeminent form in concerts throughout the twentieth century.
Each of the four main genres consists of a brief composition complemented by improvisation. The compositions themselves are not radically different from genre to genre, although they are often associated with and thus represent a particular genre. It is misleading to think of a Hindustani composition as a “fixed” entity, to be performed exactly as a composer intended it to sound (Wade 1973). Even the most widely known songs by the most respected singer-composers only provide a basis for 163flexible interpretation and improvisation: a raga, a tala, and a text, which together provide the basic materials for improvisation.
Two aspects of performance—the way the singer uses the composition and the nature of the singer’s improvisation—most clearly distinguish one genre from another.
The performing ensemble and the musical roles of its members are also important differences among the genres.
The context in which each genre developed and the sociomusical identity of the singers are important aids to understanding Hindustani vocal music (Powers 1979, 1980).
