ABSTRACT
Sometime in the second half of the 20th century, “teach them to think” became “teach them thinking skills.” Correspondingly, knowledge was no longer inseparable from thinking; thinking skills came to be viewed as generalizable, applicable to a wide range of knowledge. In this article we argue for a richer conception of knowledge, one that recognizes much of what passes for higher-order skills as better accounted for as deeper knowledge. Empirical claims for the existence and teachability of “higher-order skills” tend to confuse skills with abilities. Weaknesses evident in such research cast doubt on their use in current movements to teach “21st century skills,” leading to circular teach-test reasoning whereby what is taught is limited by what can be assessed. This chapter presents the argument that the complex of 21st century educational needs should be treated as a problem of socializing students into a knowledge-creating society rather than mastering a list of 21st century learning objectives.
