ABSTRACT
This chapter describes the dual-hormone hypothesis, which provides an analytical framework for studying neuroendocrinological contributions to dominance and status-seeking. This hypothesis interprets behaviour in terms of the interaction between testosterone and cortisol, endogenous steroids secreted by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal, respectively. We review evidence for the view that the relationship between testosterone and dominance (an association that has received a great deal of popular and academic attention) depends on levels of cortisol. More specifically, several studies suggest that testosterone is positively related to dominance under conditions of low cortisol, but this relationship does not hold under conditions of high cortisol. We discuss this dual-hormone interaction in the context of a range of social behaviours, including, for instance, leadership, risk-taking, and aggression. We provide examples of departures from this typical dual-hormone pattern particularly for antisocial behaviours such as aggression, and also describe potential factors moderating the testosterone × cortisol interaction. We conclude with a discussion of important avenues for future research.
