ABSTRACT
In urban settings, disparities are further exacerbated by a high concentration of poverty, different urban hazards (e.g., high levels of pollution, poor sanitation), the global health worker shortage, widespread diversity that calls for increased resources to meet the needs of different groups via culturally competent interventions and services, social exclusion and isolation among many underserved and vulnerable groups, and rapid population growth that often outpaces the capacity of cities to build essential infrastructure and services (Alegria, Sribney, and Mulvaney-Day, 2007; Vlahov et al., 2007; Schiavo, 2013b). Examples of urban health disparities include higher infant mortality rate (IMR) among African Americans and Hispanics in New York City, United States (NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2015); the widening gap on death rates from heart disease in rich versus poor areas in many cities in England, including London, Liverpool, and Manchester (Asaria et al., 2012); and disproportionate rates of diarrhea, tuberculosis, and child mortality in squatter areas of Manila, Philippines, such as Tondo (Jones, 2015).
