ABSTRACT
Starting from an indication of the problematic nature of the relationship between religion and the state, this paper examines political debates on the headscarf and face veil in three liberal states – Germany, France, and Belgium – between 2003 and 2011. It shows the significant commonalities – despite both the different arrangements between religion and the state and also despite the radically different political, social, and linguistic situations in these countries. The political debates are hostile and assert that fundamental values closely related to national identity, societal values, and human rights are threatened by what the headscarf or face veil represents. The similarity of argumentation shows that, whether the country has a doctrine of laïcité or is more overt about the links between religion and the state, the liberalism of each has reached the limits of the ‘alien religiosity’ which politicians say their country can bear.
