ABSTRACT
Science and technology (S&T) resources and capabilities in the former Soviet Union are heavily concentrated in Russia, particularly in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Russia has about two-thirds of the researchers and major research institutes, and almost 60 percent of all research organizations, of the former Soviet Union. The second major concentration, about 17 percent, is in the Ukraine, mainly in Kiev. Belarus is third with about 4 percent. The other 12 nations of the former Soviet Union account for approximately 12 percent of total researchers and 20 percent of total research organizations.
The Soviet Union historically had the largest number of scientists and engineers (about 1.5 million in 1988), scientists and engineers per million of population (5,387), and R&D expenditures per gross national product (6.2 percent) among the major nations of the world. Russia, by itself, not only retains first rank in these measures among the nations of the world, but, in terms of scientists and 611engineers per million population (9,398 in 1989) is even more clearly the leader. But, probably because of the problems in Russia, the number of Russian scientists and engineers decreased from 1,385,300 in 1989 to 1,227,400 in 1991.
Numbers, however, do not tell the entire story. S&T in Russia and the rest of the former Soviet Union is strong and vital in some areas, but weak and deteriorating in many other areas. For example, some areas of fundamental science and much military and space research and development (R&D), especially in Russia, are world class. However, most areas of civilian R&D, especially in areas like computers and consumer electronics, are below world standards. Military influence and funding have played a major role in S&T. Historically, about one-half of the funding of the former Soviet Academy of Sciences came from the military. Overall, military R&D accounted for about 75 percent of the state budget allocations for R&D in the former Soviet Union. About 80 percent of military R&D was conducted in Russia.
A crisis in funding, caused by the broader economic crisis, is the most serious problem in S&T today in the former Soviet Union. Most of the limited funds currently available for S&T are being used for salaries. Consequently, scientific facilities are deteriorating and needed equipment and supplies cannot be purchased. This situation seems to be affecting all laboratories, even the best. A number of scientists (but, apparently, no nuclear weapons scientists) have left, and there is evidence that a significant number intend to remain abroad. Leaders of the Russian S&T establishment consider that preserving that establishment is now their first priority. The former Soviet Union, particularly Russia, also must deal with the conversion of its military establishment, including its large and numerous military laboratories. Related to this is the transformation of the governmental applied research and development capabilities to support the evolving civilian market economies.
Increased technology transfer between the United States and the former Soviet Union will benefit both regions. The U. S. Administration recently announced its policy to “actively seek opportunities to acquire goods, services, and technologies from the [former Soviet Union] that benefit our economy and other security interests, and to encourage private business to expand their search for new opportunities,” and to further reduce U.S. COCOM 1 controls on U.S. exports of dual-use technologies to the former Soviet Union to only those most vital to U.S. security.
If the former Soviet Union can mobilize S&T effectively, science and technology will be able to contribute to a successful evolution of those societies and economies. But a report of the Russian Academy of Sciences suggests that a more likely scenario is Russian S&T falling even further behind the West. The S&T establishment in the former Soviet Union, particularly in Russia, has been reorganized in an attempt to cope with the current social and economic situation and to better prepare for the future. The Baltic nations 612are even reorganizing their university research structure on the Western model and eliminating their Academy of Sciences structures, the most visible legacy of the former Soviet S&T structure. A window of opportunity, possibly brief, exists for the former Soviet Union during which its S&T, along with capital, free social institutions, and other factors have the potential to transform those societies and contribute to their economic development. A number of these factors, including U.S. S&T assistance, are discussed in other papers of this volume.
