ABSTRACT
Among the many diplomatic challenges Japan has faced since gaining independence in 1952, two have arisen at particularly historic moments. At these two junctures, fundamental international structures and relationships among nations seemed to be undergoing profound change. At these moments no one had the benefit of historical precedent, proven models, established guidelines, or fixed rules. To those in charge of Japanese diplomacy, most comfortable with routinized decisions in a known diplomatic framework, these encounters were especially wrenching, for they seemed to involve Japan in issues, choices, and decisions that seemed likely to determine the nature of the international structure itself. Each would prove a formidable test of Japan's policy-making structures and its leaders' values, diplomatic skills, and grasp of world politics.
