ABSTRACT
In the inter-war period, nationalism and the nation state were seen as stabilizing factors that could deter war. Refugees without a nationality were therefore in need of protection 'of a state' that would accept and integrate them until they could return to their own country. South Africa has the best-developed system and has refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) a hundred times more than anywhere in the EU. In practice, however, the differences between foreign citizens, refugees and even Belgians were of little relevance in daily life and only changed when legislation on social welfare and education became significant. Neither special refugee status, nor immigration papers were granted at that time, but again in practice, the principle of non-refoulement was respected. The defeat of the Communes in Paris in May 1871 created a new wave of refugees who were not welcome and seen not as refugees, but as criminals.
