ABSTRACT
The Astronomer began his biography with a statement of the twin utility of reading the deeds of former men, and especially of princes. They can produce usefulness and edification, and also serve as a caution, a claim which in its particular terminology goes back to a letter of Pope Gregory. The Astronomer presented Louis as an athlete engaged in the daily practice of humility. But the Astronomer's text may convey knowledge of the portents of imperial death in the Historia Augusta and of portents in Orosius and Ado of Vienne. Biography has an honesty which history lacks it is unpretentious. But neither Thegan nor the Astronomer present Einhard's Charlemagne: both are concerned to anchor him in the world of the Christian community, the ecclesia. Heinz Lowe, who asked that question, suggested that, at least in the West Frankish kingdom, nobles and bishops sought to set limits to royal activity through coronation oaths and mirrors for princes.
