ABSTRACT
Mothers fare worse in the labor market than women without children and men. Analyses of survey data have documented a motherhood wage penalty across a range of samples, control variables, and model specifications (Anderson, Binder, and Krause 2003; Budig and England 2001; Glauber 2007; Waldfogel 1997, 1998). Cross- nationally, the penalty exists in more than a dozen countries in Europe and North America (Harkness and Waldfogel 1999; Misra, Budig, and Moller 2005), and constitutes a substantial risk factor for poverty (Misra, Budig, and Moller 2005). Over the life course, the penalty cumulates into a considerable disadvantage for mothers (Crittenden 2001; Sigle-Rushton and Waldfogel 2004).
