ABSTRACT
Introduction Although the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) did not include access to energy, subsequent work has emphasised its importance for human development. UN-Energy (2005) highlighted that energy services – lighting, heating, cooking and mechanical power – are essential for alleviating poverty and achieving the MDGs. While the direct impacts of access to modern energy on economic development may be contested, studies suggest that such access plays a critical role in improving quality of life, health, communication, education, access to information and development outcomes for women (Modi et al., 2005; UNDP, 2012). Deficient access implies poor resilience to socio-economic and climate variability and change. For example, energy services for use by health centres and communities are essential for disaster management (O’Brien and Hope, 2010; UNDP, 2012). Energy access is therefore crucial to resilience and adaptive capabilities.
