ABSTRACT
Introduction What Are Observational Methods? Many observational methods have their roots in Anthropology, in which researchers visit little-known ‘tribes’, and record their activities for subsequent analysis and interpretation. Field notes are used to provide a ‘thick description’ (Geertz, 1973) of events and actors which can subsequently be drawn together to provide a detailed account of little-known cultures. Anthropological methods (including observation) have been adopted by education researchers and other social scientists, primarily through the development of ethnography as an approach to social research (see Hammersley & Atkinson, 1983). Ethnography might involve the researcher participating in events, observing activities, taking notes and collecting unstructured data to produce an account of the situation being studied (perhaps in a school or university rather than a little-known culture). A crucial
part of observation-particularly important in educational research-is to ‘make the familiar strange’. This may be problematic given that most researchers have a wealth of experience within educational settings, both as students and as tutors, yet it is crucial-in research terms-to look beyond what is overtly being ‘taught’ in any specific context. When using ethnographic approaches in educational settings, a range of alternatives to field notes for recording observed events have been developed (including audio or video recordings), and these may be of use to the pedagogic researcher. Recordings enhance accuracy, in that it is possible to have a more or less complete transcript of what was said, but may add to the researcher’s workload, especially if a professional typist is not available to transcribe them. Observers may take a ‘participant’ role, that is they are part of the situation under study
(an example would be a lecturer doing research on their own teaching sessions), or a ‘nonparticipant’ role, where the researcher acts as a neutral observer of events (so far as this is possible). Protocols developed for peer observation of teaching, such as those in use inmany UK universities, may provide an initial framework to structure observation of teaching. These protocols may encourage the observer to consider the physical environment and layout of teaching space; the tutors’ organization and preparation; supporting materials and resources; student activities and contributions; questioning techniques and communication skills, and these could provide a useful starting point for classroom observation. Whilst this paper focuses largely on qualitative data collection, there is a long tradition of classroom observation in secondary schools, much of which relies on quantitative data, gathered using structured observation systems (Wragg, 1994). The best known of these is the Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) (Flanders, 1970) which focuses on teacher-student interaction, and codes events every few seconds according to a pre-ordained set of responses (e.g. teacher lectures, asks questions, gives directions, accepts ideas, praises, etc., student initiates or responds to teacher; silence). Although they may be helpful in some contexts, FIAC have been used far less frequently in higher education than in schools. In the context of pedagogic research, observational methods might be used in situations
such as: . Undertaking a holistic, ethnographic study of an institution or department to
investigate the daily activities and interactions therein; . Participant observation of a lecturer’s own teaching and interaction (using video
or audio recordings of teaching sessions for example); . Non-participant observation of student interaction and activities in the laboratory
or field environment; . Observation and analysis of online discussion forums or website usage, in order to
judge the level of learning taking place. Specific projects discussed in this paper include the use of: observation and audio
recording of interactions in geography A-level classes; non-participant observation of geography undergraduates doing fieldwork; and video, audio and written diaries by student participant observers on an overseas field course.
