ABSTRACT
Living standard indicators can be classified into two broad categories: income-related measures and non-income-related measures. The European population grew from 486.4 million to 574.0 million in the interwar period. Literacy is defined as the percentage of the population aged 15 years or over that is able to read and write. Enrolment rates are the number of pupils divided by the relevant school age population cohort. Due to strong population growth, the Eastern half of the European continent became more populous than the Western half for the first time in European history. The Soviet Union and Bulgaria constituted paradigmatic cases, with annual population growth of 1.5% and more. High population growth put pressure on living standards throughout the region, but governments responded with policies to promote economic growth and improve education and health. Keeping living standards low in the countryside would force people to leave for the cities, providing the workforce for the new industries.
