ABSTRACT
This case study charts the influence of a succession of colonial powers over the Philippines. First came the Spanish, who established a highly concentrated pattern of land tenure that channeled wealth to a narrow elite, while creating an ongoing source of revolutionary opposition. Next came the United States, which overthrew Spain in 1898, but soon after faced war with a mass-based Filipino opposition. To stabilize the country, the United States used a combination of military and democratic strategies, developing Filipino educational, legislative, police, health care, as well as military institutions. Nevertheless, revolutionary opposition, particularly among the peasantry, persisted for decades and eventually spiraled into the Huk Rebellion after World War II. The Japanese wartime occupation caused much destruction but left little lasting imprint. Post-war U.S. aid to prevent a growing Communist revolution strengthened Philippine military institutions at the expense of its civil institutions, particularly under the long dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos. Still, the revolutionary movement grew, with leftists and moderates allying. As the situation veered toward revolution, the United States pressed Marcos to restore democratic institutions. When this failed, Filipinos took to the streets to force Marcos from power, and, in what would later become an awkward alliance with the military, they succeeded.
