ABSTRACT
This chapter argues that current research shows that culture comes in at least two different kinds: associative and cognitive; that these kinds are present in very many species of animals; and that the same species may have both kinds of culture. Like associative cultures, cognitive cultures may be formed in a variety of ways. Some animals may transmit culture via imitation; some may share cultural concepts that cause the members of a community to categorize and interact with their surroundings in similar ways. Researchers often begin by looking for evidence of different behavioral traditions in different populations of the same species of animal. For example, researchers studying culture in chimpanzees may be interested in how geographically distinct populations construct different tools. Distinguishing between kinds of cultures will obviously influence debates about whether human culture and animal culture are homologous or merely analogous.
