ABSTRACT
Muslims in the early and medieval periods of the Islamic tradition denied Christian beliefs about the Trinity, Jesus' divinity and sonship, the Incarnation and Jesus' death and atonement. One the earliest extant Muslim rejections of Christian doctrines, apart from the Qur'an itself, is found in the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, which the Umayyad caliph 'Abd al-Malik commissioned in 692. Some Muslim thinkers sought to accommodate Christian doctrines instead of rejecting them outright. This is found especially in Ibn al-'Arabi and Sufi theorists of his ilk. Muslims also responded to Christian doctrines by reinterpreting their biblical foundations to align with Islamic doctrine. Abu 'Isa al-Warraq, a Mu'tazili turned Shi'i who lived in Baghdad in the mid-ninth century, also wrote what was apparently a survey of the major religious confessions of his time and then used this as the basis for his Al-Radd 'ala al-thalath firaq min al-Nasara.
