ABSTRACT
Mountains and wilderness areas are geographically and culturally interwoven. In New Zealand (NZ), most wilderness is located in national parks where mountains or ranges are cultural icons. For example, Mt Aspiring National Park and Aoraki Mt Cook National Park are named after their loftiest peaks. Although some wilderness areas lack an alpine peak, most have a high point on the horizon that is culturally significant. Mt Hikurangi, in the eastern North Island, is an example of a high point in a wilderness area with considerable spiritual, cultural and physical significance to local Māori and European people. Wilderness areas, with their unique ecosystems, are focal points of the touristic gaze and sites of mountain recreation. The natural assets of wilderness areas, coupled with increasing concern for conservation ethics globally, has made these places attractive for ecotourism, adventure tourism and mountaineering tourism. Wilderness as a concept is contested, dynamic and malleable. A physical area of land complete with peaks, flora and fauna is the basis of widely different human perceptions. An alpine peak can be a Māori cultural god, a conservation site or a mountaineering objective. The notion of parallax describes the different interpretations that come from multiple perspectives (Timms 2008). Timms (p. 95) acknowledges the existence of: ‘a complementary parallax of perspectives to address the human-nature dichotomy’. As society has developed from pre-industrialization to postmodernity, so too have perspectives of wilderness. The experience of wilderness has progressed from initially being a wild heathen place to avoid and fear, to a desirable asset that provides value to civilization. Nash (1963) identifies that value arguments are inherently anthropocentric and have promoted a separation of humans and nature. In contrast, an eco-centric perspective sees nature as inherently valuable in its own right. Hall and Page (2002) summarize a number of wilderness parallax values including: (a) experiential values that support recreation and tourism; (b) mental and restorative values for enhancing individuals; (c) scientific values of wilderness (e.g. genetic resources, ecological research); and (d) economic value that accrues from the commodification of wilderness and the resources and activities therein.
