ABSTRACT
Early ship and cargo handling activities were relatively simple. Dock and port labour was largely casual and labourers were hired either individually or as part of a gang or a pool for one day or for the entire period of a job task. However, this combination of labour-intensive operations and an untrained port work force resulted in poor and unsafe working conditions. This was followed by a number of governmental and union schemes, such as the US/Canada International Long-shore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) and the UK National Dock Labour Scheme (NDLS), with a view to providing a stable and more organised labour force and ensuring safer and improved working conditions. Similar union and government schemes have taken place across most countries and port regions.
