ABSTRACT
The demographic transformation of the United States has been increasingly highlighted as the 21st century approaches. Locke (1992) stated that more than one third of the U.S. population will consist of people of color, and others point out that native-born Whites will become just another group within the diverse racial and ethnic peoples living in the United States (Cox, 1993; Jamieson & O’Mara, 1991; Wittmer, 1992). According to Johnson (1995), “schools serve as a barometer for measuring the demographic changes taking place in the society at large” (p. 103). In recent years, schools have reported rising numbers of students of color, biracial, and immigrant students (Johnson, 1995; Kopala, Esquivel, & Baptiste, 1994; Nishimura, 1995; see Taylor, chap. 13, this volume). Unfortunately, many schools are not prepared or well-equipped to address the needs of this growing group of students. Many of these students experience difficulties in the schools. Immigrant children and their families often have limited support systems (Esquivel & Keitel, 1990) and typically do not utilize available support services (Acosta, Yamamoto, & Evans, 1982). Dropout rates among many students of color, especially in urban environments, are alarmingly high and many students report feeling disempowered and disenfranchised in their schools (Cummins, 1990). There are also increasing incidents of violence, some of which are racially biased, committed by elementary, middle, and secondary school-aged students (Ferrara, 1992).
