ABSTRACT
Research concerning effective instruction has revealed several classroom processes that are related to improved academic outcomes for students of all ability levels and of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. For example, students’ engagement during instruction (e.g., Greenwood, 1991a), time spent actively learning a subject (e.g., Leinhardt & Pallay, 1982; Rosenshine & Berliner, 1978), how teachers organize lessons (e.g., Arreaga-Mayer & Greenwood, 1986; Brophy, 1983; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986), and teachers’ instructional behaviors (e.g., Arreaga-Mayer & Perdomo- Rivera, 1996; Brophy, 1979; Good & Grouws, 1979). Brophy and Good (1986), in their third handbook of research on teaching, pointed out that the greatest contribution of the teacher effectiveness research during the 1970s and 1980s was the clear demonstration that teachers and classroom instructional processes make a difference in student achievement (Anderson, Evert- son, & Brophy, 1979; Leinhardt, Zigmond, & Cooley, 1981).
