ABSTRACT
Industrialization has been spreading across Europe after its first Industrial Revolution in England during the 18th century. Thus, agrarian society has been transformed into industrial cities, which were part of the market and expanded social infrastructures. Many people gathered to the city for its convenience of roads, water supply, drainage, electricity and increased employment due to industrialization. Economic scale also expanded compared to pre-existing cities. This industrialization has expanded all around the world. The development of cities provided convenience and abundance to citizens; but numerous problems arose when people gathered to the city for its benefit. Cities were expanding, but there was only limited space, which led to housing, water and air pollution problems due to manufacturing activities, and created the greenhouse effect by development on greenfield sites. In addition, an increase in the transportation system, which was to connect cities, resulted in serious traffic problems. As shown in Figure 20.1a, these environmental problems are deviating from city deterioration, and turning into city centre cavitation (‘the doughnut phenomenon’). City development process: (a) city function expansion; (b) sustainable compact city https://s3-euw1-ap-pe-df-pch-content-public-p.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/9781849774444/2b5de9b1-0084-4069-9079-a7a8f70687af/content/fig20_1_C.jpg" xmlns:xlink="https://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> Source: Shin (2008b)
