ABSTRACT
In 1845 the US took control by treaty of the Oregon Territory and in 1848 it acquired by war the northern half of Mexico, which together comprise the western portion of what is now the continental United States. Although those lands were populated, they were seen by many European Americans as theirs to take. The English regarded Irish Catholics as uncivilized savages and contemptible papists, which influenced American views of Irish immigrants. Like some other European immigrants later in the nineteenth century, the whiteness credentials of Irish immigrants were questioned by some European Americans. Chinese Americans experienced discrimination under local, state, and federal law, which they challenged, sometimes successfully. Chinese Americans were frequently blamed for job shortages during economic crises. The reception and treatment of Mexican, Chinese, and Irish newcomers confirmed and elaborated upon America’s commitment to a system of racial stratification.
