ABSTRACT
The basic components of Earth’s hydrosphere are described in detail. The H2O exchange between the oceans and the atmosphere is explored showing the specific processes of the hydrological cycle. Next, large-scale ocean circulation driven mainly by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes, i.e. the thermohaline circulation is explained further to show its significance on Earth’s radiation budget. In the following, special attention is paid to studies of heat and water balances in the world’s oceans. In this context, techniques based on satellite data for the retrieval of the global rain rate distribution are presented. In addition, the nonlinearities in oceans and climate feedbacks are discussed based on the very high internal variability of the climate system. Furthermore, recent advances on lakes, rivers, and threatened seas are presented as well as several case studies of hydrological applications.
