ABSTRACT
Water’s (H2O) polar structure and hydrogen bonding impart
unique properties of density, specific heat, and surface ten-
sion that greatly impact aquatic ecosystems. Water expands
in the solid phase, forming ice which floats (the maximum
density of water occurs at 3.94C) and insulates, protecting aquatic organisms in cold conditions. Water also has a high
specific heat value (4.217 kJ/kg K at 0C), reducing temperature fluctuations in and near water, enhancing life. Its
surface tension, due to hydrogen bonds, allows economical
oxygen transfer via natural or mechanical means in aqua-
culture and waste treatment applications.
