ABSTRACT
The nature of ground potentials is investigated by using a conductive hemisphere of a given radius with its center located on the surface of the earth. The ground potential as a function of the distance from the center of the electrode is calculated. Ground-resistance and Ground-impedance are defined, and basic series and parallel configurations are analyzed. Prospective touch and step voltages are introduced and calculated. Effective voltages are examined by introducing the human body impedance, which consists of resistive and capacitive elements that vary based on several factors, the most important being the current path, the magnitude of the touch voltage, the duration and the frequency of the current circulating through the body, the amount of moisture on the skin, the surface area, and the pressure of the contact with the energized part.
