ABSTRACT
In the case of smoking, the expectation is that it will be a sociable activity and will calm the nerves; that is, act as a stress-reducing agent. In the case of alcohol, the expectation is that it will ease tension and reduce anxiety. Self-help groups can provide valuable support for someone who wishes to give up smoking or change their drinking habits, and public health programs can help change health beliefs and provide a cue to act. In aversion therapy, the individual is given a drug which makes them vomit when they drink alcohol. In the case of alcohol and tobacco use, the expected outcomes may be of both an internal and an external nature, but the expectations themselves are transmitted by social means. Suggested physical abnormalities included a genetic predisposition to becoming an alcoholic, and endocrinological differences in the way in which alcohol is metabolized.
