ABSTRACT
Specialist paediatric urological conditions include hypospadias, epispadias, bladder exstrophy, vesicoureteral reflux, renal duplications, urolithiasis and urinary tract obstruction. Surgical referrals for foreskin problems are common in early childhood, and reassurance is often all that is needed after taking a careful history and examination. The genital tubercle becomes a penis under the influence of androgens with a tubular urethra arising from the urethral plate. The urethral plate develops a diamond-shaped groove whose edges fold over and fuse in the midline, forming a tube. In girls, the urethral plate's homologue forms the vestibular groove with edges that do not fuse but form the labia minora. Epispadias is a rare dorsal penile defect with an opening whose upper limit lies anywhere from the penopubic junction to the glans. Ureterovesical junction obstruction is the second most common cause of antenatal hydronephrosis and arises from an adynamic and stenotic region obstructing the distal ureter near the bladder.
